Typology of interventions for antimicrobial use and antimicrobial resistance in aquaculture systems in low- and middle-income countries.

Indiscriminate antimicrobial use (AMU) in aquaculture to treat and prevent diseases is common and can lead to the emergence of antimicrobial-resistant micro-organisms, potentially impacting public health and connected ecosystems. This study aimed to develop a typology to classify and characterise interventions to reduce AMU in aquaculture and identify points of action. Seventeen aquaculture and animal health professionals in Asian and African countries were interviewed to gather information on characteristics of interventions in different contexts to develop a typology. Seven types of interventions were defined: (i) legislation and regulations; (ii) industry rules and standards; (iii) voluntary instruments; (iv) commercial technology and alternatives to antimicrobials; (v) on-farm management; (vi) learning and awareness-raising; and (vii) activities with co-benefits. Types were based on intervention function, scope of implementation, implementer, compulsion, strength of the intervention, AMU/antimicrobial resistance (AMR) objective and stakeholder to influence. For each type, examples were described and discussed. The most common interventions to address AMU and AMR were legislative and regulatory frameworks and voluntary instruments, including National Action Plans. Interventions addressing AMU/AMR specifically were scarce. Other interventions focused on indirect effect pathways to AMU and AMR reduction aiming to improve good aquaculture practices, disease prevention and improved management. Monitoring and evaluation of these interventions were found to be rare, only present for interventions driven by development projects and international agencies. The presented typology of existing strategies and interventions addressing AMU/AMR in aquaculture systems can guide evaluation of AMR-sensitive interventions that promote responsible AMU, and informs the design and implementation of future interventions.

Antagonistic Activity Against Pathogenic Vibrio Isolates of Bioflocculant-Producing Bacteria Isolated from Shrimp Ponds.

<b>Background and Objectives:</b> Biofloc culture system has been used in aquaculture as an effective technology for water treatment due to many advantages of being biodegradable and environmentally friendly. This study aims to isolate bioflocculant-producing bacteria antagonistic to pathogenic <i>Vibrio</i> species from Pacific white shrimp ponds in Thua Thien Hue, Vietnam. <b>Materials and Methods:</b> <i>Vibrio</i> isolates were isolated by screening on medium with and without antibiotics. The resistance of <i>Vibrio</i> to antimicrobial agents was assessed by Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC). Bioflocs formed in shrimp cultures were used to screen bioflocculant-producing bacteria. The identification of bacteria was performed by 16S rRNA sequencing. The flocculating activity was measured by a test with kaolin clay suspension. To evaluate the antagonistic activity against <i>Vibrio</i> isolates, an agar well diffusion assay was used. <b>Results:</b> The screening results have found that <i>Vibrio</i> isolates such as <i>V. parahaemolyticus</i> KS02 and <i>V. alginolyticus</i> KS08 from shrimp ponds can be resistant to many antibiotics with the highest resistance rate up to 66.49%. Four bioflocculant-producing isolates were obtained and identified as <i>Bacillus</i> species. Among them, <i>Bacillus velezensis </i>B9 when grown in YPG medium supplemented with 3% sucrose and 0.7% peptone had the highest bioflocculation with an activity of 49.2%. Two isolates of <i>B. subtilis</i> B2 and <i>Bacillus</i> sp. B6 had quite strong antagonistic activities against vibriosis shown in the zones of inhibition on the assay plates with diameters of about 20 mm. <b>Conclusion:</b> The present study has found some <i>Bacillus</i> isolates had bioflocculant-producing efficiency and inhibited pathogenic <i>Vibrio</i> bacteria. These <i>Bacillus</i> isolates will potentially be used as inoculum for bioflocculation to improve shrimp production.

Environmental effects on the oxygen consumption rate in juvenile Epinephelus fuscoguttatus (Forsskal, 1775).

This study was designed to optimize the culture conditions of juvenile Epinephelus fuscoguttatus (Forsskål, 1775) under laboratory conditions. To this effect, the rate of oxygen consumption was monitored as an index of stress under different temperature, salinity, pH, photoperiod, and urea concentrations. The result obtained after 12 h of exposure suggests the preference of the juvenile E. fuscoguttatus to a temperature range of 15-25 °C and salinity of 30 ppt. Based on this study, temperature was found to be the most lethal as 100% mortality was observed after 6 h in fish exposure to temperatures above the optimal (≥ 30 °C). However, the oxygen consumption rate was similar under the different pH, photoperiod, and urea concentration tested. It was concluded that water temperature was most critical in terms of respiration physiology of the juvenile E. fuscoguttatus given the range and levels of environmental factors tested in this study.

Marine seafood production via intense exploitation and cultivation in China: Costs, benefits, and risks.

Identifying strategies to maintain seafood supply is central to global food supply. China is the world's largest producer of seafood and has used a variety of production methods in the ocean including domestic capture fisheries, aquaculture (both freshwater and marine), stock enhancement, artificial reef building, and distant water fisheries. Here we survey the outcomes of China's marine seafood production strategies, with particular attention paid to the associated costs, benefits, and risks. Benefits identified include high production, low management costs, and high employment, but significant costs and risks were also identified. For example, a majority of fish in China's catches are one year-old, ecosystem and catch composition has changed relative to the past, wild and farmed stocks can interact both negatively and positively, distant water fisheries are a potential source of conflict, and disease has caused crashes in mariculture farms. Reforming China's wild capture fisheries management toward strategies used by developed nations would continue to shift the burden of production to aquaculture and could have negative social impacts due to differences in fishing fleet size and behavior, ecosystem structure, and markets. Consequently, China may need to develop novel management methods in reform efforts, rather than rely on examples from other large seafood producing countries. Improved accounting of production from fisheries and aquaculture, harmonization and centralization of historical data sets and systematic scientific surveys would improve the knowledge base for planning and evaluating future reform.

Fish Feed Quality Is a Key Factor in Impacting Aquaculture Water Environment: Evidence from Incubator Experiments.

The effect of fish feed quality has gained increasing attention to alleviate the harmful environmental impacts induced by intensive aquaculture. In current research, we have conducted an incubator experiment to highlight the effect of fish feed quality on aquaculture water environment. Fish feed from three manufactures with two different dosages (0.1000 g, 0.2000 g) was added to the culture medium with and without Microcystis aeruginosa. Treatments with Microcystis aeruginosa were named as MHT, MHP and MZT; while the treatments without Microcystis aeruginosa named as HT, HP and ZT. Microcystis aeruginosa densities and nutrients concentrations were measured in the study. Results have shown that fish feed quality (manufactures) has a great effect on nutrients concentrations in the absence of Microcystis aeruginosa (P < 0.05). Meanwhile, fish feed can stimulate Microcystis aeruginosa growth that is also influenced by fish feed quality excluding lag phase (0~12 day) significantly in general (P < 0.05). The maximum Microcystis aeruginosa density (Nmax) is 1221.5, 984.5, 581.0, 2265.9, 2056.8 and 1766.6 1 × 104 cells mL-1 for MHT 0.1 g, MHP 0.1 g, MZT 0.1 g, MHT 0.2 g, MHP 0.2 g and MZT 0.2 g, respectively. In treatments with algae, fish feed quality affect total phosphorus (TP) concentrations (except the difference between MHT and MHP) and total nitrogen (TN) concentrations significantly (P < 0.05). For most of consumed nutrients, the obvious differences among all treatments were observed excluding lag phase in general (P < 0.05), which suggest that the nutrient utilization is also dependent on fish feed quality. Keeping in mind the above facts it is concluded that fish feed quality is a key factor in impacting aquaculture water environment.

Domestication and genetic improvement: balancing improved production against increased disease risks from inbreeding.

Successful selective breeding programmes have been under way in aquacultural species for many decades. Gains in growth rate as high as 900% have been reported. Programmes selecting for resistance and/or tolerance of specific pathogens have had similar success. However, no more than 10-20% of global aquaculture production is sourced from well-documented breeding programmes. Direct selection for resistance and/or tolerance in biosecure breeding programmes is difficult when classical breeding methods are used. Genomic selection is widely expected to become the most effective mode of selection against pathogens in fish and shellfish. In this paper, the authors explore the possible negative effects of genetic improvement programmes, especially those that stem from interactions between genetics and other components of the aquaculture production system, particularly disease. The main focus is the interaction between selective breeding and biosecurity. They suggest that a self-amplifying feedback loop can be created when biosecurity regulation causes a progressive reduction in genetic diversity and an increase in inbreeding, especially in smallholder hatcheries and farms in developing countries. The resulting inbreeding depression causes increased susceptibility to disease, which in turn increases the frequency and severity of epizootics. Greater losses due to disease again increase regulatory pressures and the cycle begins once more. This 'biosecurity-agro-economic-genetic' feedback loop is analogous to an 'extinction vortex' in wild populations. The authors believe that the loop can be broken by biosecure, aquacultural, genetic exchange networks, modelled on existing breed associations for terrestrial domestic animals. Such networks would constitute a global aquacultural gene pool, with enhanced environmental resilience, long-term capacity for adaptation and minimal inbreeding depression. However, such networks will also require innovative new pathogen management procedures, documentation and regulations to facilitate the exchange of broodstock and seed while still maintaining effective biosecurity.

Des programmes d'élevage sélectif d'espèces aquacoles sont mis en œuvre avec succès depuis plusieurs décennies. Des gains de croissance atteignant 900 % ont ainsi été enregistrés. Les programmes de sélection pour la résistance et/ou la tolérance vis-à-vis de certains agents pathogènes ont également été couronnés de succès. Néanmoins, la production issue des programmes de sélection connus et documentés ne représente guère plus de 10 à 20 % de la production aquacole mondiale. Il est difficile de procéder à une sélection directe des traits de résistance et/ou de tolérance tout en garantissant un bon niveau de biosécurité dès lors que les méthodes utilisées relèvent de l'élevage classique. La sélection génomique présente un immense potentiel et deviendra sans aucun doute la méthode de sélection la plus efficace contre les agents pathogènes affectant les poissons, les mollusques et les crustacés. Les auteurs analysent les effets négatifs potentiels associés aux programmes d'amélioration génétique, en particulier ceux résultant d'interactions entre les composantes génétiques et d'autres aspects, notamment sanitaires, des systèmes de production aquacole. Leur analyse est principalement axée sur les interactions entre l'élevage sélectif et la biosécurité. Ils évoquent le risque de création d'une boucle de réaction auto-amplificatrice dans les contextes où l'application de la réglementation en matière de biosécurité entraîne un déclin progressif de la diversité génétique et une hausse de la consanguinité, en particulier dans les écloseries et fermes de petite dimension des pays en développement. Le phénomène de dépression de consanguinité qui en résulte entraîne une sensibilité accrue aux maladies, ce qui à son tour accroît la fréquence et la gravité des épizooties. Le regain des pertes dues à ces maladies se traduit par de nouvelles pressions exercées au plan réglementaire, de sorte que le cycle est relancé une nouvelle fois. Cette boucle de réaction biosécurité-agroéconomie-génétique est similaire à la « spirale de l'extinction ¼ qui affecte les populations sauvages. Les auteurs considèrent que cette boucle peut être rompue en mettant en place des réseaux d'échange de ressources génétiques biosécurisées pour l'aquaculture, sur le modèle des associations d'éleveurs opérant dans le domaine des espèces domestiques terrestres. Ces réseaux permettraient de constituer un patrimoine génétique mondial pour l'aquaculture doté d'une résilience environnementale améliorée, d'une capacité d'adaptation sur le long terme et d'un niveau minime de dépression de consanguinité. Néanmoins, de tels réseaux nécessiteront des procédures nouvelles et innovantes de gestion des agents pathogènes, ainsi qu'une documentation et des réglementations spécifiques afin de faciliter les échanges de stocks de géniteurs et de semence tout en garantissant un niveau approprié de biosécurité.

Hace ya muchos decenios que se vienen aplicando con éxito programas de reproducción selectiva de especies acuícolas, con aumentos de las tasas de crecimiento que llegan a veces hasta un 900%. Los programas de selección de rasgos de resistencia y/o de tolerancia a determinados patógenos han cosechado un éxito similar. Sin embargo, no más de un 10% a un 20% de la producción acuícola mundial tiene su origen en programas de reproducción bien documentados. La selección directa de rasgos de resistencia y/o tolerancia mediante programas reproductivos que ofrezcan garantías de seguridad biológica resulta difícil cuando se aplican métodos clásicos de cría. Ahora cunde la expectativa de que la selección genómica llegue a ser el modo de selección más eficaz contra la presencia de patógenos en el pescado y el marisco. Los autores examinan los posibles efectos negativos de los programas de mejora genética, sobre todo los que resultan de la interacción entre la genética y otros componentes del sistema de producción acuícola, en particular las enfermedades, prestando especial atención a la interacción entre cría selectiva y seguridad biológica y postulando que se puede engendrar un ciclo de retroalimentación que se va autoamplificando cuando los reglamentos de seguridad biológica inducen una progresiva reducción de la diversidad genética y un incremento de la consanguinidad (o endogamia), especialmente en los pequeños viveros y granjas de países en desarrollo. La consiguiente depresión endogámica genera una mayor sensibilidad a las enfermedades, lo que a su vez incrementa la frecuencia y gravedad de las epizootias. El aumento de las pérdidas por enfermedades se traduce en una mayor presión reglamentaria, y así da comienzo de nuevo el ciclo. Este ciclo de retroalimentación entre seguridad biológica, agroeconomía y genética es análogo a un «vórtice de extinción¼ en las poblaciones silvestres. Los autores piensan que es posible quebrar esta dinámica recurriendo a redes de intercambio de material genético biológicamente seguro en el ámbito de la acuicultura, a imagen de las asociaciones que existen entre los criadores de animales domésticos terrestres. Estas redes constituirían una reserva mundial de genes de acuicultura que ofrecerían mayor resiliencia a las condiciones ambientales y una duradera capacidad de adaptación, así como niveles mínimos de depresión endogámica. Semejantes redes, sin embargo, también exigirán nuevos y novedosos procedimientos de lucha contra patógenos, sistemas de documentación y reglamentos que faciliten el intercambio de genitores y alevines manteniendo a la vez niveles elevados de seguridad biológica.

Food safety impacts of finfish and crustacean aquaculture on food security in Asia.

Asia is the world's largest aquaculture producer. The aquaculture industry faces a multitude of threats ranging from microbiological and chemical to parasitic. These threats could potentially affect aquatic animal health and food safety and alter the consumer's perception of aquacultural produce. The development of antimicrobial resistance is also of increasing concern. These actual or perceived food safety threats could result in reductions in the food supply that adversely affect the food security of a country or region. Harmonised regional regulatory requirements, increased consumer awareness and the adoption of good aquaculture practices are ways in which the aquaculture industry can mitigate these risks. Together with the increased use of smart technology in production and encouragement to adopt certification and accreditation schemes, these tools can help the aquaculture industry in Asia to become more resilient in the face of such challenges. In this paper, the authors present an insight into the hazards faced by the aquaculture industry, which could potentially adversely affect food supply and hence food security, in an Asian context. The authors make several recommendations to mitigate these risks and thus safeguard against disruptions to regional food security.

L'Asie est le premier producteur aquacole du monde. Le secteur de l'aquaculture fait face à une multiplicité de menaces, depuis les dangers microbiologiques et chimiques jusqu'à ceux d'ordre parasitaire. Ces menaces pesant sur la santé des animaux aquatiques et la sécurité sanitaire des aliments peuvent aussi modifier la perception des produits de l'aquaculture par les consommateurs. L'intensification du phénomène de résistance aux agents antimicrobiens est également un sujet de préoccupation croissante. Les risques (réels ou perçus comme tels) pour la sécurité sanitaire des aliments pourraient se traduire par une réduction de l'approvisionnement en denrées alimentaires, avec un impact négatif sur la sécurité alimentaire d'un pays ou d'une région entière. Les perspectives d'atténuation de ces risques pour l'aquaculture passent par la mise en place de dispositions réglementaires harmonisées au plan régional, par une meilleure sensibilisation des consommateurs et par l'adoption de bonnes pratiques aquacoles. Parallèlement à une utilisation accrue des technologies intelligentes en production et aux mesures encourageant l'adoption de dispositifs de certification et d'accréditation, ces outils pourront aider le secteur aquacole asiatique à renforcer sa résilience face à de tels défis. Les auteurs font le point sur les menaces pesant sur le secteur de l'aquaculture dans le contexte asiatique et décrivent leur impact potentiellement négatif sur l'offre de denrées alimentaires ainsi que sur la sécurité alimentaire. Les auteurs formulent plusieurs recommandations visant à atténuer ces risques et à préserver la continuité de la production afin d'assurer la sécurité alimentaire dans la région.

El sector de la acuicultura, que tiene en Asia al mayor productor del mundo, hace frente a multitud de amenazas de carácter microbiológico, químico o parasitario que pueden afectar la salud de los animales acuáticos y la inocuidad de los alimentos derivados de ellos y alterar de este modo la visión que tiene el consumidor de los productos acuícolas. La adquisición de resistencias a los antimicrobianos es otro tema que genera creciente preocupación. Estas amenazas que penden sobre la inocuidad de los alimentos, ya sean reales o subjetivas, pueden traducirse en caídas del suministro de alimentos que afecten negativamente a la seguridad alimentaria de un país o una región. La armonización de los requisitos reglamentarios a escala regional, una mayor sensibilización del consumidor y la aplicación de buenas prácticas de acuicultura son otros tantos medios por los que el sector de la acuicultura puede mitigar estos riesgos y que, combinados con un mayor uso de tecnología inteligente en la producción y con el fomento de la adopción de sistemas de certificación y acreditación, pueden ayudar a la industria acuícola asiática a dotarse de mayor resiliencia ante esas dificultades. Los autores, centrándose en el contexto asiático, exponen los peligros que amenazan al sector de la acuicultura y que en potencia, al incidir negativamente en el suministro de alimentos, pueden hacer zozobrar la seguridad alimentaria. Después formulan varias recomendaciones para conjurar estos riesgos y con ello proteger de eventuales desequilibrios la seguridad alimentaria de la región.

Building a sustainable aquaculture industry in South Africa: the role of biosecurity.

Progress towards the South African Government's social upliftment targets on food security, equity, job creation and economic development can be made by diversification of fish production in the country's aquaculture sector. The risks associated with the diseases and parasitic infections that affect aquaculture production in South Africa are poorly understood. Substantial investment is currently being made to provide evidence of freedom from OIE-listed diseases to support an aquaculture industry that is largely reliant on access to foreign markets for high-value aquacultural products. The projected rapid expansion of the aquaculture sector in South Africa accentuates the associated need to prevent the spread of aquatic animal diseases. The primary constraint is that the current regulatory framework governing aquacultural activities is not centralised due to the diversity of aquaculture activities spanning marine, brackish and freshwater environments. An aquaculture development bill was drafted in 2018 to promote aquacultural development. The effective implementation of the provisions of the bill requires resources to ensure that suitable standards for aquatic animal health management are achieved in accordance with international standards and government policies and objectives.

L'Afrique du Sud peut progresser vers les objectifs gouvernementaux de redressement social spécifiquement axés sur la sécurité alimentaire, l'égalité, la création d'emplois et le développement économique en diversifiant la production de poissons au sein du secteur national de l'aquaculture. Les risques liés aux maladies et aux parasitoses affectant les productions aquacoles en Afrique du Sud sont mal appréhendés. Le pays mobilise actuellement d'importantes ressources pour démontrer sur son territoire l'absence de maladies listées par l'OIE afin de soutenir le secteur aquacole qui dépend fortement de l'accès aux marchés d'exportation pour écouler des productions aquacoles de grande valeur. L'expansion rapide que devrait connaître le secteur de l'aquaculture en Afrique du Sud accentue la nécessité concomitante de prévenir la propagation des maladies affectant les animaux aquatiques. La principale contrainte réside dans la structure non centralisée du cadre réglementaire régissant actuellement les activités aquacoles, principalement due à la diversité de ces activités, qui recouvrent les productions en milieu marin, en eau saumâtre et en eau douce. Un projet de loi sur le développement de l'aquaculture a été élaboré en 2018 pour promouvoir le secteur. La mise en œuvre effective des dispositions incluses dans ce projet exige que des ressources soient consacrées à assurer l'application des normes appropriées de gestion de la santé des animaux aquatiques, en conformité avec les normes internationales et avec les objectifs et la stratégie du gouvernement.

La diversificación de la producción piscícola en el sector de la acuicultura de Sudáfrica puede ser uno de los medios para avanzar hacia los objetivos de progreso social del Gobierno del país en materia de seguridad alimentaria, equidad, creación de empleo y desarrollo económico. No se sabe lo suficiente de los riesgos ligados a las enfermedades e infestaciones parasitarias que en Sudáfrica afectan a la producción acuícola. Actualmente se están haciendo cuantiosas inversiones para obtener datos que demuestren la ausencia de enfermedades inscritas en la lista de la OIE y ayudar así a una industria, la de la acuicultura, que depende en gran medida del acceso a los mercados extranjeros para vender productos acuícolas de elevado valor. La rápida expansión del sector que se tiene proyectada en Sudáfrica acrecienta la necesidad conexa de prevenir la propagación de enfermedades de los animales acuáticos. El principal escollo para lograrlo es la descentralización del ordenamiento normativo que rige actualmente las actividades de acuicultura, fruto de la propia diversidad del sector, que trabaja tanto en aguas marinas como en medios de agua dulce y salobre. En 2018 se redactó una ley de desarrollo de la acuicultura destinada a promover esta actividad, ley cuyas disposiciones, para ser aplicadas eficazmente, exigen recursos que permitan gestionar la sanidad de los animales acuáticos con criterios de exigencia acordes con la normativa internacional y con las políticas y objetivos del Gobierno.

The role of aquaculture farm biosecurity in global food security.

The aquaculture industry can play a key role in global food security; however, the lack of comprehensive implementation of effective biosecurity measures is preventing the sector from reaching its potential. Biosecurity begins with an evaluation of the risk of the introduction of pathogens from outside the system, as well as the spread of pathogenic agents within and from the culture system. This involves establishing a clear picture of the physical infrastructure of the system, systematically identifying the relevant pathways of transmission of pathogenic agents, analysing the risks associated with each pathway and implementing mitigation measures to minimise the risks. The farm biosecurity plan provides benefits that improve health and prevent disease-related losses through the use of best management practices, standard operating procedures, staff training, surveillance, emergency response plans, record keeping and audit of farm performance. Biosecurity supports gains in animal productivity, production and growth, thus ensuring the continuity of supply necessary for food security. Disease puts at risk the sector's resilience and reliability and will continue to limit aquaculture's contribution to global food security until comprehensive biosecurity programmes are in place. Responsibility for biosecurity is shared by all stakeholders. Overarching support from the national and international communities, including investment in innovative solutions, technological advancements and training and education, is required to achieve comprehensive global biosecurity. Implementation requires local leadership and meaningful engagement in the involved industries and communities. Each farmer must be enabled to prevent, detect and respond to disease events at the local level. Only by enabling the individual farmer can there be a decrease in the risk of disease issues becoming regional, national or international.

Le secteur de l'aquaculture peut contribuer significativement à la sécurité alimentaire mondiale mais l'absence de mesures efficaces et exhaustives de biosécurité empêche le secteur de réaliser ce potentiel. La biosécurité des systèmes d'aquaculture commence par l'évaluation des risques associés aux agents pathogènes, c'est-à-dire le risque de leur introduction dans un système à partir du milieu extérieur et celui de leur propagation au sein du système ou vers l'extérieur. Ces évaluations requièrent l'élaboration d'un schéma clair décrivant l'infrastructure matérielle du système, l'identification systématique des voies potentielles de transmission d'agents pathogènes, l'analyse des risques associés à chacune de ces voies et la mise en place de mesures d'atténuation des risques. Les plans de biosécurité appliqués dans les fermes aquacoles ont pour effet d'améliorer la santé et de prévenir les pertes associées aux maladies à travers de bonnes pratiques de gestion, la mise en place de procédures opérationnelles normalisées, la formation du personnel, les plans d'intervention d'urgence, la tenue de registres et les évaluations des performances des fermes. La biosécurité améliore la production animale et la productivité des élevages et favorise la croissance, ce qui permet de garantir la continuité de l'offre nécessaire à la sécurité alimentaire. La présence de maladies représentant un risque pour la résilience et la fiabilité du secteur, la contribution de l'aquaculture à la sécurité alimentaire mondiale sera mise à mal tant que des programmes exhaustifs de biosécurité ne seront pas en place. La biosécurité relève de la responsabilité de toutes les parties prenantes. La réalisation des objectifs d'une biosécurité exhaustive au niveau mondial requiert un soutien global au niveau national et international, y compris sous forme d'investissements pour mettre au point des solutions innovantes, introduire les avancées technologiques et organiser une offre de formation adéquate. Leur mise en œuvre passe par l'exercice d'un leadership local et d'une participation conséquente des secteurs et des communautés concernés. Chaque éleveur doit être en mesure de prévenir ou de détecter la survenue d'un événement sanitaire, mais aussi d'intervenir en cas de besoin au niveau local. Ce n'est qu'à travers l'acquisition et l'exercice de cette capacité par chaque éleveur individuellement que l'on pourra réduire le risque que les maladies se propagent en prenant une dimension régionale, nationale ou internationale.

Aunque el sector de la acuicultura puede cumplir una función decisiva para la seguridad alimentaria mundial, la incompleta aplicación de medidas eficaces de seguridad biológica está impidiendo que el sector se desarrolle al máximo de sus posibilidades. La seguridad biológica empieza con una evaluación del riesgo de introducción de patógenos desde el exterior del sistema de cultivo y de propagación de agentes patógenos en y desde el interior del sistema. Para ello es preciso disponer de una clara imagen de la infraestructura física del sistema, identificar sistemáticamente las principales vías de transmisión de agentes patógenos, analizar los riesgos inherentes a cada vía y aplicar medidas de mitigación para reducir estos riesgos al mínimo. El plan de seguridad biológica de la explotación aporta beneficios que se traducen en un mejor estado sanitario y en la prevención de pérdidas derivadas de enfermedades gracias al uso de prácticas idóneas de gestión y procedimientos operativos normalizados, así como a la formación del personal, la vigilancia, planes de respuesta a situaciones de emergencia, el mantenimiento de registros y auditorías del funcionamiento de la explotación. La seguridad biológica propicia mayores niveles de productividad, producción y crecimiento de los animales, asegurando con ello la continuidad del abastecimiento que se necesita para la seguridad alimentaria. Las enfermedades, que ponen en peligro la resiliencia y fiabilidad del sector, seguirán limitando la contribución de la acuicultura a la seguridad alimentaria mundial mientras no se instituyan programas integrales de seguridad biológica. Todos los interlocutores del sector comparten la responsabilidad de la seguridad biológica. Para lograr una completa seguridad biológica a escala mundial es preciso que las instancias nacionales e internacionales presten un apoyo de gran amplitud, en particular invirtiendo en soluciones innovadoras, adelantos tecnológicos y actividades de enseñanza y formación. Su aplicación práctica requiere liderazgo local y una resuelta participación de los sectores y las poblaciones que hagan al caso. Todo productor debe estar en condiciones de prevenir episodios infecciosos, detectarlos y responder a ellos a escala local. Solo dotando de esa capacidad a cada uno de los explotadores será posible reducir el riesgo de que un problema sanitario acabe cobrando dimensión nacional, regional o internacional.

Sharing responsibility between public and private sectors for the management of aquatic emergency animal diseases.

Aquatic animal disease outbreaks affect both the public (represented by the government) and the private sector (represented by the aquaculture and fisheries industry). However, all too often, the responsibilities and costs of responding to an outbreak may not be shared. Without a mechanism for public and private sectors to work together, the outcomes of an emergency response may not be ideal, or of common benefit to all potentially affected parties. In Australia, a mechanism is being developed for public and private sectors to share the responsibilities and costs of responding to aquatic animal disease outbreaks, through an industry- government aquatic emergency animal disease response agreement. The agreement provides an approach for both public and private sectors to share the responsibilities and costs of responding to a disease outbreak and to coordinate disease prevention activities to reduce their shared risk. The key elements of the agreement include provisions to incentivise faster notification of disease outbreaks, facilitate a faster response, share decision-making and costs (including compensation for affected businesses), clarify the responsibilities of all parties and, most importantly, strengthen risk mitigation activities. This paper describes how the draft agreement has been developed among 18 industry and government parties, how key elements of the agreement may contribute to improved aquatic animal health outcomes, and the principles which could be applied by other OIE Member Countries.

Les foyers de maladies survenant chez les animaux aquatiques affectent aussi bien le secteur public (représenté par les services gouvernementaux) que le secteur privé (représenté par les entreprises de l'aquaculture et de la pêche). Néanmoins, trop souvent ces secteurs ne partagent ni les responsabilités ni les coûts afférents aux interventions consécutives à un foyer. À défaut d'un mécanisme permettant aux secteurs public et privé de travailler ensemble, les résultats de la réponse à une urgence sanitaire risquent de ne pas être optimaux et de ne pas apporter les mêmes bénéfices à l'ensemble des parties potentiellement affectées. L'Australie a mis en place un mécanisme pour que les secteurs public et privé puissent partager les responsabilités et les coûts de la réponse aux foyers de maladies affectant les animaux aquatiques à travers un accord spécifique conclu entre le secteur de l'aquaculture et les instances gouvernementales compétentes. C'est une première mondiale dans le domaine de la gestion de la santé des animaux aquatiques. L'accord porte sur les modalités du partage des responsabilités et des coûts liés à la réponse à un foyer entre les secteurs public et privé ainsi que sur la coordination des activités de prévention sanitaire destinées à réduire les risques communs. Parmi les aspects déterminants de l'accord figurent des dispositions visant à accélérer les notifications des foyers, à faciliter une réponse plus rapide, à partager les processus de décision et les coûts (y compris l'indemnisation des entreprises affectées), à clarifier les responsabilités de chaque partie et, plus important encore, à renforcer les activités d'atténuation du risque. Les auteurs décrivent la mise en œuvre de cet accord, auquel ont pris part 18 instances du secteur privé et gouvernemental ; ils expliquent le rôle des principaux aspects de cet accord dans l'amélioration attendue de la santé des animaux aquatiques et soulignent les principes que d'autres Pays membres de l'OIE pourraient avantageusement appliquer à cette même fin.

Los brotes de enfermedades de los animales acuáticos afectan por un igual al sector público (instancias gubernamentales) y al privado (industria acuícola y pesquera). Ocurre demasiado a menudo, sin embargo, que estos sectores no asuman conjuntamente las responsabilidades y los costos de responder a un brote. En ausencia de un mecanismo para que ambos sectores trabajen de consuno, los resultados de la respuesta a una emergencia quizá no sean los idóneos, o no vayan en beneficio de todas las partes que pueden verse afectadas. En Australia se está instituyendo un mecanismo para que el sector público y el privado compartan las responsabilidades y los costos de la lucha contra brotes infecciosos en los animales acuáticos, mecanismo que reposa en un acuerdo de respuesta de emergencia a enfermedades de los animales acuáticos suscrito entre la industria y el Gobierno. Se trata de una primicia mundial en el ámbito de la gestión de la sanidad acuícola. El acuerdo prevé un método para que ambos sectores asuman en común las responsabilidades y los costos de responder a un brote infeccioso y coordinen sus respectivas actividades de prevención de enfermedades a fin de reducir el riesgo común. Entre los principales elementos del acuerdo hay disposiciones destinadas a incentivar una notificación más rápida de los brotes de enfermedad, facilitar una respuesta más ágil, compartir decisiones y costos (incluidas las indemnizaciones a empresas afectadas), aclarar las responsabilidades que incumben a todas y cada una de las partes y también, aspecto este de suma importancia, potenciar las labores de mitigación del riesgo. Los autores describen el proceso de elaboración del acuerdo entre 18 instancias del mundo empresarial y el sector público, explican cómo sus principales elementos servirán para mejorar los resultados sanitarios en los animales acuáticos y exponen los principios que podrían aplicar otros Países Miembros de la OIE para lograr también mejores resultados en el ámbito de la sanidad acuícola.

Occupational Safety and Health in U.S. Aquaculture: A Review.

Objectives: Aquaculture encompasses a variety of species in both freshwater and marine settings and can combine elements of agriculture and fishing, two recognized hazardous occupations. Efforts are underway to expand the aquaculture sector in the United States (U.S.), and should be informed by occupational safety and health (OSH) research. The objectives of this review paper are to: i) describe the U.S. aquaculture sector, ii) summarize statistics, peer-reviewed studies, and reports focused on U.S. aquaculture OSH, and iii) describe the policy landscape specific to U.S. aquaculture OSH.Methods: Literature searches employed databases and Internet search engines to identify relevant peer-reviewed articles, reports, and other resources. Due to the expected U.S. expansion of marine aquaculture and paucity of peer-reviewed U.S.-based OSH literature in this sector, additional searches for international research on marine aquaculture were conducted.Results: The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics estimated high rates of illness and injury among U.S. aquaculture workers in 2014 and 2015. Peer-reviewed literature on aquaculture OSH identified numerous physical, chemical, and biological OSH risks depending on production methods and settings. Significant policy gaps exist regarding U.S. aquaculture OSH surveillance, reporting, and regulation.Conclusion: This review identifies a critical need for research, surveillance, and best practices information, specific to the major types of aquaculture in the U.S., to augment and inform worker safety and health efforts in this expanding sector.

Reporting of Hazardous Events in Aquaculture Operations - The Significance of Safety Climate.

Objectives: In Norwegian aquaculture, safer technology and better safety management systems have been developed during the last decade. Safety commitment and safe behavior are still vital to ensure a safe working environment. The objective of this paper is to explore what factors might influence the reporting of hazardous situations in aquaculture. The significance of factors on both the individual (work experience, position) and company/organizational level (company size, safety climate) was studied. It was hypothesized that reporting of hazardous situations was positively predicted by work experience, having the position as operational manager, company size, and safety climate.Methods: The study is based on a quantitative questionnaire study involving 428 fish farmers, operational managers, and service vessel employees in the Norwegian aquaculture industry, interviewed by telephone. A purposive sampling procedure was employed. Correlation and hierarchical regression analyses were applied. The data quality was considered satisfactory.Results: Individual factors had no significant relationship with the reporting of hazardous situations. Company size and safety climate factors had positive associations with reporting. Larger companies might have more resources for safety management and the development of practical reporting solutions. A positive safety climate might increase the motivation for reporting.Conclusion: Efforts by management to improve the safety climate can contribute to the reporting of hazardous events, continuous improvement of safety management and improvement of the safety level.

Changes in Lipids During the Ovary Maturation Process of Balanus rostratus.

Balanus rostratus is a large cold-water acorn barnacle distributed around the northern coast of the Pacific Ocean. In Mutsu Bay, Aomori, Japan, B. rostratus, which adhere naturally to scallop shells, are cultured as food. However, current culture methods do not generate sufficient supplies to satisfy market demand. Knowledge of the physiology of B. rostratus reproduction is important for the development of more efficient aquaculture methods. Previous studies have suggested that fatty acids and their metabolites play an important role in barnacle reproduction and development; however, few studies have analyzed lipids, particularly during ovary maturation. Here we analyzed lipid content, lipid class, and fatty acid composition of B. rostratus ovary throughout the year. The clutch in the present study was observed once per year at the end of November. The lipid content increased as the ovary underwent maturation. The proportion of triacylglycerol increased with increasing lipid content. The proportions of myristic acid, arachidonic acid, EPA and DHA significantly decreased in December. By contrast, the proportion of these fatty acids in lipid extracted from larvae was high relative to lipid extracted from B. rostratus ovary in December. These findings suggest that these fatty acids are transferred from the ovary to the larvae. Our novel findings on lipid metabolism during ovary maturation in B. rostratus indicate the importance of lipids during reproduction. This information may be useful in establishing methods for the aquaculture of B. rostratus.

Biomagnification characteristics and health risk assessment of the neurotoxin BMAA in freshwater aquaculture products of Taihu Lake Basin, China.

In freshwater aquaculture ecosystems with high-frequency occurrences of cyanobacteria blooms, a chronic neurotoxic cyanobacteria toxin, ß-N-methylamino-l-alanine (BMAA), is a new pollutant that affects the normal growth, development, and reproduction of aquaculture organisms. BMAA poses a great threat to the food quality and food safety of aquatic products. In this paper, high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) was used to detect the contents of BMAA in the edible portions of six representative freshwater aquaculture products (Corbicula fluminea, Anodonta arcaeformis, Macrobrachium nipponense, Eriocheir sinensis, Ctenopharyngodon idella, and Mylopharyngodon piceus) from Taihu Lake Basin in China. Noncarcinogenic health risks were assessed with reference to the model recommended by the International Environmental Modelling and Software Society and based on the biomagnification characteristics of BMAA in the various aquaculture products investigated by the stable nitrogen isotope technique. The average BMAA concentrations in the edible portions of the six freshwater culture products were from 2.05 ±â€¯1.40 to 4.21 ±â€¯1.26 µg g-1 dry weight (DW), and the difference was significant (p < 0.05), such a difference increased with the increase in the trophic level in the aquaculture products. Although a biomagnification indication was observed, the trophic magnification factor (TMF) was only 1.20 which exhibited a relatively low biomagnification efficiency. The annual health risk values of BMAA in all the measured aquatic products were within the maximum tolerable range (<1 × 10-6 a-1), and the health risk increased with the increase in the trophic level. The risk values of BMAA in the six freshwater aquaculture products for children was slightly higher than the negligible level (<1 × 10-7 a-1), thus there might have potential health risks for children's long-term consumption. Considering China's national conditions, the guidance values of BMAA based on the quality and safety of freshwater aquaculture products were proposed to be 7.2 µg g-1 DW for adults and 1.8 µg g-1 DW for children.

Development and validation of a multi-residue and multi-class screening method of 44 antibiotics in salmon (Salmo salar) using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography/time-of-flight mass spectrometry: Application to farmed salmon.

A fast and sensitive multi-residue and multiclass screening method for the simultaneous determination of 44 antimicrobials in salmon muscle, using ultra- high-performance liquid chromatography/time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-TOF/MS), was develop and validated. Two different procedures for the extraction step were tested, and an extraction with acetonitrile, ethylenediaminetetra acetic acid (EDTA) and n-hexane proved to be the best alternative. The method was validated, in accordance with Decision 2002/657/EC, using a qualitative approach at the CCß level. The detection of the analytes was accomplished by retention time and accurate mass, whose maximum error should not exceed 5 ppm. All the compounds were successfully detected and identified at concentration levels corresponding to ½ maximum residue limit (MRL). The screening method was applied to 39 store bought samples of farmed salmon purchased in Portugal, originating from Norway and Denmark, and no antibiotic residues were detected.

Genetic (co)variation in skin pigmentation patterns and growth in rainbow trout.

From a physiological-behavioral perspective, it has been shown that fish with a higher density of black eumelanin spots are more dominant, less sensitive to stress, have higher feed intake, better feed efficiency and therefore are larger in size. Thus, we hypothesized that genetic (co)variation between skin pigmentation patterns and growth exists and it is advantageous in rainbow trout. The objective of this study was to determine the genetic relationships between skin pigmentation patterns and BW in a breeding population of rainbow trout. We performed a genetic analysis of pigmentation traits including dorsal color (DC), lateral band (LB) intensity, amount of spotting above (SA) and below (SB) the lateral line, and BW at harvest (HW). Variance components were estimated using a multi-trait linear animal model fitted by restricted maximum likelihood. Estimated heritabilities were 0.08±0.02, 0.17±0.03, 0.44±0.04, 0.17±0.04 and 0.23±0.04 for DC, LB, SA, SB and HW, respectively. Genetic correlations between HW and skin color traits were 0.42±0.13, 0.32±0.14 and 0.25±0.11 for LB, SA and SB, respectively. These results indicate positive, but low to moderate genetic relationships between the amount of spotting and BW in rainbow trout. Thus, higher levels of spotting are genetically associated with better growth performance in this population.

Review: Assessing fish welfare in research and aquaculture, with a focus on European directives.

The number of farmed fish in the world has increased considerably. Aquaculture is a growing industry that will in the future provide a large portion of fishery products. Moreover, in recent years, the number of teleost fish used as animal models for scientific research in both biomedical and ecological fields has increased. Therefore, it is increasingly important to implement measures designed to enhance the welfare of these animals. Currently, a number of European rules exist as requirements for the establishment, care and accommodation of fish maintained for human purposes. As far as (teleost) fish are concerned, the fact that the number of extant species is much greater than that of all other vertebrates must be considered. Of further importance is that each species has its own specific physical and chemical requirements. These factors make it difficult to provide generalized recommendations or requirements for all fish species. An adequate knowledge is required of the physiology and ecology of each species bred. This paper integrates and discusses, in a single synthesis, the current issues related to fish welfare, considering that teleosts are target species for both aquaculture and experimental models in biological and biomedical research. We first focus on the practical aspects, which must be considered when assessing fish welfare in both research and aquaculture contexts. Next, we address husbandry and the care of fish housed in research laboratories and aquaculture facilities in relation to their physiological and behavioural requirements, as well as in reference to the suggestions provided by European regulations. Finally, to evaluate precisely which parameters described by Directive 2010/63/EU are reported in scientific papers, we analysed 82 articles published by European researchers in 2014 and 2015. This review found that there is a general lack of information related to the optimal environmental conditions that should be provided for the range of species covered by this directive.